Reflective Thinking Stages
Note: Characteristic assumptions of Stage
1 reasoning has been skipped, because it is not applicable to college or
higher). Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage
6 (Stage 7) (Note: for an
alternate and less expansive version of this see Perry.)
Stage 2 Reasoning:
Characteristic
assumptions of Stage 2 reasoning:
1. Knowledge is certain, but some people
do not have access to it.
2. Authorities such an scientists,
teachers, and religious leaders know the truth.
3. When the truth is uncertain, accept the
view of an authority.
4. Evidence is not a criterion for
establishing truthfulness.
Instructional
goals for students:
1. Accept that there may be several
opinions about a controversial issue, none of which is known to be absolutely
correct.
2. Recognize that authorities sometimes
disagree with each other.
3. Give reasons for beliefs beyond relying
on the word of an authority.
Difficult
tasks from a Stage 2 perspective:
1. Recognizing that there are legitimate
differences of opinion about some issues.
2. Giving reasons for a belief beyond
reference to an authority's view.
3. Accepting that even authorities do not
have right or wrong answers for some issues.
Sample
developmental assignments:
1. Consider two interpretations of a poem,
historical event, scientific study. and so forth.
2. Provide arguments on two sides of an
issue, giving reasons for the arguments.
3. Identify the evidence for different
views on the same issue.
4. Consider the views of different experts
on a particular event.
Developmental
support for instructional goals:
1. Acknowledge that decisions are harder
when there are no right or wrong answers.
2. Attempt to legitimize students' feeling
of anxiety when confronted with multiple perspectives on an issue.
3. Provide clear, unambiguous directions
(including details and deadlines) for
assignments.
4. Point out noted authorities who hold
alternative points of view.
Characteristic
assumptions of Stage 3 reasoning:
1. Knowledge is absolutely certain in some
areas and temporarily uncertain in other areas.
2. Beliefs are justified according to the
word of an authority in areas of certainty and according to what 'feels
right" in areas of uncertainty.
3. Evidence can neither be evaluated nor
used to reason to conclusions.
4. Opinions and beliefs cannot be
distinguished from factual evidence.
Instructional
goals for students:
1. Learn to use evidence in reasoning to a
point of view.
2. Learn to view their own experiences as
one potential source of information but not as the only valid source.
Difficult
tasks from a Stage 3 perspective:
1. Recognizing legitimate sources of
authority as better qualified than themselves in making a judgment about a
controversial issue.
2. Understanding the differences between
interpretation and opinion.
3. Using evidence to justify a point of
view.
4. Appreciating multiple evidence-based
perspectives on a single issue.
Sample
developmental assignments:
1. Evaluate an inadequate argument [one
that uses Stage 2 reasoning] in terms of its use of evidence, dependence upon
authority, and understanding of the other side of the argument.
2. Here is one point of view on an issue.
What are other possible perspectives on this issue? Cite evidence for each
perspective.
3. Critique a specified point of view,
paying particular attention to the use of evidence.
4. Defend a specific point of view, giving
the best evidence you can find in support of it.
5. Give the best evidence you can find for
a specific point of view, bearing in mind issues of what counts as evidence and
what makes one source of evidence more credible than another.
Developmental
support for instructional goals:
1. Attempt to legitimize students'
struggle with feelings of being confused and overwhelmed by the issue of what
counts as evidence.
2. Model good use of evidence by
explicitly presenting justification for both sides of an argument,
distinguishing inapplicable evidence from relevant evidence and explaining the
rationale behind one's choice of appropriate authorities.
3. Provide detailed assignments and clear
expectations whenever possible.
Characteristic
assumptions of Stage 4 Reasoning:
1. Knowledge is uncertain because of
limitations of the knower.
2. Beliefs are justified by idiosyncratic
uses of evidence and opinion.
3. Differences in points of view exist
because of people's upbringing or because they deliberately distort
information.
4. Evidence is used in support of a point
of view along with unsubstantiated opinion.
Instructional
goals for students:
1. Learn that interpretation is inherent
in all understanding and that the uncertainty of knowledge is a consequence of
the inability to know directly.
2. Learn that some arguments can be
evaluated as better within a domain on the basis of the adequacy of the
evidence.
Difficult
tasks from a Stage 4 perspective:
1. Understanding that the nature of
knowing itself leads to the uncertainty of knowledge.
2. Understanding that all points of view
are not equally valid.
3. Understanding that opinions should be
based on evidence.
4. Understanding that different
perspectives may lead to different legitimate interpretations of evidence but
that this is not the same as bias.
5. Understanding the difference between
facts and interpretations.
Sample
developmental assignments:
1. Explicitly consider the extent to which
knowledge is certain within a specific discipline and across disciplines by
comparing and contrasting the reasons for uncertainty in difficult cases.
2. Compare good and bad arguments on one
side of an issue; evaluate the adequacy of these arguments by looking at the
evidence and how it is interpreted and noting what makes a stronger argument.
3. Here are two conflicting points of view
on an issue. Explain how the author of each arrived at his or her conclusions.
Pay careful attention to the academic discipline or perspective from which the
issue was approached.
4. Distinguish between evaluating the
adequacy of arguments and making judgments about people.
Developmental
support for instructional goals:
1. Model evaluating arguments without
being intolerant.
2. Model and explain how different
interpretations may legitimately arise.
3. Legitimize students' discomfort with
evaluation.
Characteristic
assumptions of Stage 5 reasoning:
1. Interpretation is inherent in all
understanding; therefore, no knowledge is certain.
2. Beliefs may be justified only within a
given context or from a given perspective.
3. Evidence can be evaluated
qualitatively: within a perspective, some evidence is stronger or more relevant
than other evidence.
Instructional
goals for students:
1. Learn to relate alternative
perspectives on an issue to each other by comparing and contrasting them and
evaluating their strengths and weaknesses.
2. Learn to determine whether it is
possible to arrive at an appropriate integration of the competing alternatives.
Difficult
tasks from a Stage 5 perspective:
1. Choosing among competing evidence -
based interpretations.
2. Explaining relationships between
alternative perspectives on an issue.
3. Recognizing that choosing one
alternative does not deny the legitimacy of other alternatives.
Sample
developmental assignments:
1. Compare and contrast two competing (and
unequal) points of view, citing and evaluating evidence and arguments used by
proponents of each. Determine which proponent makes the better interpretation
of the given evidence and which conclusion is stronger.
2. Here are two conflicting points of view
on the same issue. Explain how each author arrived at his or her conclusions.
Identify the evidence and arguments for each point of view, suggesting which
has stronger support. Explain which view you would endorse and why you would do
so.
3. Select and analyze one controversial
issue from among those discussed in class or in the course readings. Your
analysis should consist of (a) a summary of the issue, including an explanation
of its significance to this discipline; (b) a description of at least two
points of view from which this issue has been addressed by scholars; and (c)
some indication of which point of view you believe to be the most appropriate
of those selected and the grounds upon which you base this decision.
Developmental
support for instructional goals:
1. Model and explain appropriate scholarly
inquiry, explicitly approaching issues from several inter- or intra
disciplinary perspectives.
2. Give relevant interpretations of
evidence from each perspective chosen, and explain the reasoning behind
choosing one interpretation over another.
3. Legitimize students' struggle to
adjudicate between competing interpretations and perspectives, both cognitively
and affectively.
Characteristic
assumptions of Stage 6 reasoning:
1. Knowledge is uncertain and must be
understood in relationship to context and evidence.
2. Some points of view may be tentatively
judged as better than others.
3. Evidence on different points of view
can be compared and evaluated as a basis for justification.
Instructional
goals for students:
1. Learn to construct one's own point of
view and to see that point of view as open to reevaluation and revision in
light of new evidence.
2. Learn that even though knowledge must
be constructed, strong conclusions are epistemologically justifiable.
Difficult
tasks from a Stage 6 perspective:
1. Understanding that even though
knowledge may change at some future point, some principles or procedures are
currently generalizable beyond the immediate situation.
2. Constructing one's own point of view
and defending it on the basis of evidence or argument as being better (for
example, having greater truth value) than other points of view.
Sample
developmental assignments:
1. Develop and defend firm arguments for a
particular point of view, perhaps in conjunction with your own research.
2. Provide your own organization of a
given field of study (for example, concept mapping of a course or a
discipline), with explicit reference to the interrelationships between elements.
Developmental
support for instructional goals:
1. Model holding and defending firm points
of view without exhibiting intolerance for other points of view.
2. Provide examples of increasingly better
points of view (for example, more comprehensive, more coherent) developed over
time as more and better evidence, arguments, and techniques become available.
3. Emphasize the importance of developing
and defending arguments about complex ill-structured problems, as well as the
difficulty in doing so.
Supplemental:
Characteristics of Stage 7 Reasoning:
1. Individual acts confused and
disoriented.
2. People walk on the other side of the
street to avoid coming in contact.
3. I don't care. I am in my own world.
(This description was in a handout I
received in a seminar for faculty to assist in teaching to the proper level of
student reflective thinking. I don't recall who it should be attributed to. If
anyone remembers where this came from please let me know so I can make the
appropriate reference.)